CHAPTER 2 - METHODS | Publications

CHAPTER 2: METHODS

CHAPTER 2: METHODS

Participants

Individuals were eligible to participate if they were UCF undergraduate students and were 18 years of age or older (See Table 1). All participants were recruited through SONA, for 1 research credit in their psychology class, during one semester of study. If instructors offered extra credit to students for participating in research, then instructors must have provided an alternate assignment of comparable time and effort for students who wished to earn extra credit, but who did not want to take part in the research.

This thesis is part of an ongoing project recruiting 500 undergraduate students. At the time of analysis, data were collected from 230 participants. Therefore, results below reflect the current sample, but data collection will continue until the target sample of 500 participants is obtained. Participants were 230 college students between the ages of 18 and 60 years (M = 20.87, SD = 5.76). In this study, 64.0% of participants identified as women, 35.5% identified as men, and 0.4% identified as gender-fluid. Participants’ race/ethnicity was 62.6% White, 16.5% Black, 28.7% Hispanic/Latino, 8.3% Asian, 0.9% Pacific Islander, 0.4% Native American, and 1.3% Other. Participants were able to select multiple racial/ethnic identities such that percentages add up to over 100%. At the time of the study, the majority of participants were single (56.6%), the majority were heterosexual/straight (82.0%), and the majority were full-time students (89.1%).

Procedures

The dating app survey was hosted on Qualtrics and accessed through SONA, the UCF Psychology Department’s research participation system, where participants were rewarded with 1 research credit. Participants were told that the survey would take approximately 45 minutes to complete. The data collected was quantitative data (See Table 2). Individuals were eligible to participate regardless of whether or not they have ever used dating apps or have ever experienced any form of sexual violence. The data collected was analyzed for prevalence of dating app facilitated sexual violence, general sexual violence outside of dating apps, and patterns of mental health symptoms in each main group.

The survey included measures of participants’ use of dating apps, sexual violence experienced on dating apps, general experiences of adult sexual violence, and multiple mental health symptoms (depression, anxiety, PTSD, self-esteem, loneliness, perceived self-control). College students who reported no use of dating apps answered questions about general experiences of sexual violence, PTSD symptoms (for participants who report any form of sexual violence), and measures for symptoms of depression, anxiety, self-esteem, loneliness, and perceived self-control within the last month. College students who have used dating apps also answered questions reporting the frequency of sexual violence via dating apps and symptoms of PTSD related to any sexual violence experienced.

The self-report survey included 8 demographic questions, 17 questions about general dating app use, 28 questions about dating app facilitated sexual violence (for dating app users only), 18 questions about general adult sexual violence, 25 questions about PTSD symptoms for those who experienced sexual violence, 9 questions about depression symptoms, 7 questions about anxiety symptoms, 10 questions about self-esteem, 20 questions about loneliness, and 7 questions about perceived self-control (See Appendix). In order to ensure that participants were paying attention and reading the questions carefully, attention check questions were scattered throughout the survey. To ensure the safety and well-being of study participants, a list of mental health and sexual violence resources was included at the beginning and end of the survey (See Appendix L). If any participant felt uncomfortable or retraumatized taking the survey, counseling centers and 24-hour hotlines were listed to connect them with professionals.

Measures

Demographics

Participants first answered basic demographic questions and general dating app use questions. Demographic questions were non-identifying and cannot be used to track the survey answers back to a participant’s identity (See Appendix C). Demographic questions included the participant’s year at UCF, enrollment status, age, race/ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and relationship status (See Table 1).

Dating App Use

For dating app users (N = 144), questions about age preference, gender preference, frequency of dating app use, and length of dating app use were asked. Additional questions focused on a participant’s interactions with others on dating apps. For example, questions included if a participant ever felt uncomfortable interacting, felt unsafe messaging, or felt unsafe meeting others from a dating app (See Table 2). Specific questions also targeted participants’ expectations and attitudes of sexual harassment and unwanted sexual advances on dating apps. These questions were used to assess participants preferences, reasons for dating app use, dating app expectations, and their general experiences (See Appendix C).

Sexual Violence

In order to accurately collect data and experiences of adult sexual violence, two separate measures were used. The Technology Facilitated Sexual Violence Victimization (TFSV-V) scale was used as a foundation to measure the prevalence and subtypes of sexual violence experienced through dating apps (Powell & Henry, 2019). From the TFSV-V scale, 4 original questions, regarding virtual world and gaming platforms, were removed for the purposes of this dating app study. Also, 10 new questions, developed for this specific survey, were added about sexual violence experiences more specific to dating apps (See Appendix D). The TFSV-V scale measured experiences of sexual violence specifically occurring via dating apps, with items organized into four subsections: digital sexual harassment (α=0.788), image-based sexual abuse (α=0.682), sexual aggression and/or coercion (α=0.863), and gender/sexuality-based harassment (α=0.766). Higher scores indicate higher frequency of dating app facilitated sexual violence (α=0.904). For this study, the TFSV-V scale was changed from a yes/no response system to a 0- 3+ frequency response, to be consistent with the Sexual Experiences Survey- Short Form Victimization scale that was included to measure adult experiences of sexual violence (See Appendix E). Items were averaged to form scores for each subscale and the total TFSV-V score.

The Sexual Experiences Survey-Short Form Victimization (SES-SFV) scale was included in the survey to measure the prevalence of sexual violence victimization, from the age of 14 to the present time (Koss et. al., 2006). The SES-SFV scale was adapted to be specific to sexual violence experienced in person or online apart from dating apps. Participants were instructed to respond to these questions based on their experiences, apart from dating apps, since the age of 14 to present time (See Appendix E). Participants also answered the SES-SFV questions, on a 0-3+ frequency scale, based on the number of times each event had occurred (α=0.887).

Mental Health Symptoms

All mental health measures, apart from the PTSD measure, were answered by all participants regardless of whether or not they used dating apps. The PTSD measure was only answered by participants who reported sexual violence experience(s). Additionally, participants answered all mental health measures based on their mental health symptoms within the last month.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Participants who answered yes to having reported at least 1 instance of sexual violence, on dating apps or outside of dating apps, are directed to the PDS-5 scale (See Appendix F). The PDS-5 scale is a 22-item measure to gauge the extent of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms (Foa et.al., 2016). PTSD symptoms can range from feeling upset or having nightmares due to the trauma to adverse physical symptoms. Participants were asked to respond based on how many days per week the symptoms have occurred in the last month. The more days in a week a symptom occurs, the more severe their PTSD is. Additionally, participants were asked how long after the trauma their symptoms began as well as how long the symptoms persisted. Participants who did not report any sexual violence on dating apps or outside of dating apps were directed to only answer the rest of the mental health measures. They did not answer the PDS-5 scale because the PTSD measure is specifically used in reference to reported sexual violence experiences. Answers to each item were averaged, higher scores on this measure reflect more severe PTSD symptomology (α=0.971).

Depression

The PHQ-9 scale is the measure used to gauge participants level of depressive symptoms in this survey (See Appendix G). The PHQ-9 scale is a 9-item measure that includes questions about a person’s daily physical and emotional behavior within the last month (Kroenke et.al., 2001). Participants were asked to respond based on how many days per week (not sure, several days, over half the days, nearly every day) each symptom occurred. Participants who had reported sexual violence, offline or on dating apps, answered the PHQ-9 questions after having answered sexual violence and PTSD questions. Participants who reported never having used dating apps were directly taken to this section of the survey and only answered the mental health measures. All 9 items assessing depression symptoms in this measure were averaged with higher scores indicating more severe depression symptoms (α=0.903).

Anxiety

In order to gauge if and how severe anxiety symptoms appear, the GAD-7 scale was used (See Appendix H). The GAD-7 scale is a short 7-item measure regarding various behaviors and feelings someone has felt within the last month (Spitzer et.al, 2006). Participants were also asked to respond based on how many days per week (not sure, several days, over half the days, nearly every day) each symptom occurred. Scoring was done by averaging the answers of all items, and higher scores indicate more severe anxiety symptoms (α=0.937).

Self-Esteem

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale is a 10-item measure used in this survey to gauge participants’ level of self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965) (See Appendix I). This measure includes both positive and negative statements to which a participant responded on a 1-4 scale labeled strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree. Negatively worded items were reverse coded, and scoring was done by averaging items in the measure. Higher scores indicate higher self-esteem (α=0.919).

Loneliness

Participants answered various questions to gauge their level of loneliness within the past month (See Appendix J). The UCLA Loneliness scale is a 20-item measure used in this survey about one’s personal feelings and social perceptions (Russell, 19961996). Participants were asked to respond with how often they relate to each item (often, sometimes, rarely, never). Scoring was done by averaging all items in the measure. All items in the measure were reverse coded, so higher scores indicate more loneliness (α=0.964).

Perceived Self-control

The Pearlin Self-Mastery scale was used in this survey to assess participant’s level of perceived self-control (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978). The scale is a 7-item measure including questions about feelings of helplessness, one’s control over life problems, control over one’s future, and confidence (See Appendix K). Participants were asked to respond based on the extent they agreed with each item (Strongly agree, agree, somewhat agree, neither agree nor disagree, somewhat disagree, disagree, strongly disagree). Scoring was done by averaging all items in the measure, and higher scores indicate higher perceived self-control (α=0.805).